CALL related to teaching 1

      1. An Experience With Voice-Based Learning

Robert L. Baker

Abstract
Dr. Baker performed a detailed analysis of the capabilities of the VBLS system and preliminary testing of that system with students. This article presents his experience with the VBLS system, conclusions, and recommendations to VBLS courseware authors.

Before describing my experience working with the Scott Instruments VBLS system, it would be well to set forth some of my own pedagogical principles and prejudices--where I'm coming from.

I am known to be a fanatic for phonetics. I firmly believe that if a student is ever to speak a language without offence to the native ear, a firm phonetic foundation must be laid at the beginning. I am not an adherent of the gradual approximations theory, even though I am wholeheartedly in favor of increased emphasis and stress on communicative competence. If we are convinced of the value of foreign language study in furthering world wide understanding, we owe it to the people whose language we are learning, whether friend or foe, to learn to speak it with some semblance of proper pronunciation and intonation. Many teachers claim that there is not enough time at the early levels to worry about such things, and most students won't ever use the language anyway (maybe we have cause and effect confused?). But it is the rare student, usually the student who can learn a language just as well without a teacher at all, who can recoup a poor beginning and move on to not only fluent but correct speech.

I shall group my remarks under three categories: The use of the Scott VBLS system for (1) pronunciation and intonation; (2) for reading/speaking practice in the case of those languages which have a foreign script or have a poor phonetic fit between sound and symbol; (3) for use in grammar drills, etc.

PRONUNCIATION AND INTONATION

It should be remembered from the beginning that Scott Instruments does not make claims for the VET product as a phonetic analyzer. And yet I have found that if the materials are carefully produced and if there is proper understanding on the part of teachers and students about the System's capabilities and liabilities, it can have great potential. It is extremely important that both teachers and students realize the capabilities and shortcomings of the System and be able to capitalize on what the System does well. It seems to me that VBLS will be particularly valuable in cases where a foreign character set is involved, or where there is not a good phonetic fit between orthography and the sound system (as in French).

There are certain things which the VBLS product does very well with respect to phonetics, others which it does less well. Actually, I have the impression that even some of the things it seems to do not terribly well, it does well on a sporadic, inconsistent basis, (due no doubt to the sampling procedure). And yet it is surprising how sensitive the System is to certain things, particularly to global analysis-it's surprising the extent to which the lesson author must be extremely careful on all matters regarding suprasegmentals, intonation, tone of voice, etc. It is essential that voicing be done in a s neutral a manner as possible unless emotional overtones are specifically called for. Otherwise a

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student may find him/herself pronouncing the segmental phonemes correctly, but being told he is wrong.

It is very possible that courseware prepared with the VBLS system may not be for all students. Students who tend to get very up-tight and who are unable to relaxing front of the machine may find it a frustrating experience, particularly since repeating an utterance over and over in an attempt to improve on one's production can lead to having the frustration and irritation creep into the voice, which will affect the way the machine hears the student, and result in a vicious circle.

But those students whom I have observed working with Russian lessons prepared with the VBLS system seem to have thoroughly enjoyed the experience, to have been delighted with the capabilities of the machine, and to agree with me that VBLS has great potential in the area of making the necessary tie in the student's mind with the foreign script and the foreign sounds. The weak spots did not seem to bother them. Maybe the excitement of working on such materials on a computer is in itself such a motivational factor that this itself has value. (We must yet determine, however, how long this effect will last with all but the most motivated students.)

It seems clear to me that use of the VBLS product will help impress upon students the need for precision in foreign language learning (something they don't' seem to value much nowadays in any field, although we can expect this to improve as more of them become computer literate.)

It does seem clear to me that if the system is to be used for pronunciation analysis and foreign character recognition, it is vital that the lessons be very carefully planned so as to add only one new element in each lesson which will be mastered before moving on to another point. More care will have to be used than we are accustomed to applying, knowing (in the past) there would always be a teacher present to make up for the defects in the drills. IT is possible *this will require research) that the System, if it is to be used for phonetics drills, much be used in its entirety, from the beginning, working on each phonetic problem in an orderly sequence based on an analysis of the phonetics difficulties of the given languages vis-à-vis the native language; it maybe that it will not be as effective if individual drills are to be extracted from the totality for remedial work on individual problems.

The teacher may find it advisable to use one or another of the study modes provided when dealing with phonetics matters. This writer find the WORD DRILL mode extremely demanding (maybe too much so for most people), while the REVIEW and POST-TEST modes (after the machine has been trained to the student's voice) may not be demanding enough for strict teachers.

The following are my observations concerning the use of the VBLS system in phonetics drills:

1. The VET terminal is surprisingly good at distinguishing accented pure vowels and detecting diphthongization (at least if at all extreme).
2. Not good at distinguishing initial consonants (Scott Instruments realizes this). It is rather good at detecting extreme aspiration, but less good at discriminating voiced vs. voiceless initial consonants. On drilling these distinctions, it would be wise to place the consonants in question in medial position in the world.Although not outstanding on initial consonants, the system is still surpassingly sensitive to fully voiced consonants vs. 
3. American English semi-voiced consonants (an essential point in good Russian pronunciation).
4. Not terribly good at discriminating released vs. non-released final stop consonants (important in Russian).
5. Really very sensitive in most cases of intonation, tone of voice, location of phrase accent, relative syllable strength, etc. (Perhaps too much so, at least unless voicing are done by more than one person.) Excellent on requiring smoothness in reading, without excess pauses (particularly since the microphone will turn off if there is too long a pause).
6. Not terribly good at differentiating between apical and blade production of dental consonants.
7. Not good at distinguishing [m] and [n].
8. Good on accented/unaccented vowels.
9. Surprisingly good at distinguishing between a very vigorous Russian [y] ([j] for many linguists) and the much weaker English off-glide which the letter y usually represents in English
10. Surprisingly good on distinguishing various varieties of central vowel (such as [^}, schwa, and the Russian high central vowel.)
11. Quite good on distinguishing between a true dental [n] and the English back sound pronounced in such words as bank, and sing.
12. Quite good on distinguishing a true dental [t] from the flap sound in the English word matter.
13. Variable on discrimination of palatalized vs. unpalatalized consonants, depending on position in word (and, apparently, particularly on how much the palatalization affects neighboring vowel sound). Discrimination seems better in final position than in some other positions. But very good at distinguishing between a soft consonant followed by a vowel and a soft consonant followed by an independent [y] before the vowel sound.

SESSION MODE MENU SELECTION FUNCTION 1 PRE-TEST 2 TUTOR/REVIEW 3 TUTOR/REVIEW/POST-TEST 4 WORD-DRILL 5 WORD-DRILL/TUTOR/REVIEW 6 REVIEW LAST LESSON TYPE SELECTION NUMBER: <PRESS RETURN TO EXIT>

Screen showing VBLS options
FOREIGN SYMBOL RECOGNITION
The current version of the VBLS system allows for foreign character sets or accent marks, but my experience to date is with version 1, which did not provide for foreign character sets.
One of my own greatest interests in the capabilities of the VET terminal and VBLS system is for use with students who take longer than their peers to make the connections between the foreign symbol and its related sounds(s). In spite of the fact that I have had to do all of my experimentation to date using a transliteration (in the questions) and a specially devised transcription(in the answers), I am convinced that, in the long run, this is one of the areas in which the VBLS System has the greatest potential in foreign language study. Students who have worked with the lessons agree with me on this (although they were all at a more advanced stage of study than the lessons were intended for). The ability of the student sot work at his own pace, repeating the material over and over (and in random order if the author has set the parameter values properly) should provide an excellent, low-pressure sort of drill for such students.
GRAMMAR DRILLS
It appears to me that the following are the only limitations which the System has with respect to grammar drills:
1. The answer must be no longer than 3 seconds
2. The typed answer must require no more than 40 characters.
3. There must be only one correct answer for any one item-ambiguity will lead only to students frustration
4. In writing grammar drills, the teacher must keep in mind the limitations in discriminationof the system. For example, a drill in Russian contrasting the unaccented endings of the third-person singular and third person plural verbs of the first conjugation ([-ait] vs. [-ayut] is unlikely to be productive.
Other than these limitations, the courseware author's own ingenuity is the
limit. Any sort of substitution, transformation, fill-in-the-blanks, short-answered, translation (ugh!) drill items, the answers to which fit the given limitations should prove to be effective. (Please forgive this author's prejudices about certain drill types expressed in that paragraph!) At least this author has found them so.
CONCLUSIONc
It seems clear to me that use of the System will help impress upon students that need for precision in foreign language learning. IN spite of my awareness of certain problems, I am certainly sold on the capabilities of the System and hope to be able to use it actively in my teaching.
It does seem clear to me that if the System is to be used for pronunciation analysis and foreign character recognition, it is vital that the lessons be very carefully planned so as to add only one new element in each lesson, which will be mastered before moving on to another point. It will also be important that both teachers and students realize the capabilities and shortcomings of the system and be able to capitalize on what the system does well. It seems to me that it will be particularly valuable in cases where a foreign character set is involved, or where there is not a good phonetic fit between orthography and the sound system (as in French).
I also wonder whether the System may not have tremendous potential for working with dyslexic and learning-disabled students, allowing them to work intensively in a non-threatening atmosphere.
 
 
2. Montevidisco: An Anecdotal History Of An Interactive 
Videodisc
Larrie E. Gale
Abstract: For years researchers and theoreticians have been arguing that real world experience is the only practical way to learn a language. But because many of us do not have the opportunity to live in another culture and be constantly, or even regularly, exposed to another language, apparently the only practical way that language instruction can take place for groups is in the traditional setting of a classroom with the extensive use of printed materials supplemented by audio tapes. The promise of new technologies changes this limited approach to language instruction. With the advent of videodiscs mated to microcomputers we suddenly have available very sophisticated ways of delivering instruction while simulating real world experiences. The following reports an attempt to teach Spanish to students at Brigham Young University using interactive videodisc by simulating a visit to a Mexican village. In the process of describing this program called "Montevidisco," the problems encountered will be listed as well as their solutions. The design, production and computer program development will also be described along with the results of the project and the interest spawned by "Montevidisco."
Why Interactive Videodisc?
Recent research into cognitive development and language learning tends to support the point of view that language learning and meaning in language is based on schema or constructs that we develop as we interact with reality, as we experience a wide variety of communication exchanges. Such research also suggest that the interaction between the right and left hemispheres of the brain is such that the meaning of printed communication is almost wholly dependent upon the schemata that we have developed while interacting with the real world around us. If these conclusions are true, then our attempts to teach language primarily through the printed page (or through linearly processed aural communication) have basic, inherent weaknesses that frustrate rapid or comprehensive language learning.
Research results which have significant implications for the teaching-learning process have been comprehensively studied and digested in Instructional Message Design by Fleming and Levie. From this and similar sources we learn from that:
1. The way instructional content is organized is crucial and at least as important as the technology delivering it.
2. The amount of information communicated in X time is critical.
3. Typing new information or abstractions back to past experience is essential in any instruction.
4. Student control of the information flow increased acquisition and remembering.
5. The more opportunity to practice new ideas, concepts and skills while receiving prompt feedback, the better.
6. The contiguity of rules-examples-practice-feedback is most important.
7. Many others could be listed.
The significance of this is that the creative use and integration of interactive video into the teaching-learning process can help satisfy the conditions of learning identified by these research results.
Specifically, an interactive videodisc can be placed under student control and can 1) be used as a high density storage medium of still visuals, 2) display slow motion and freeze frame for the communication of critical skills, 3) provide random access capability of up to 54,000 separate still frames, or full motion/ full color video segments in two different languages or stereo with access to still frames or motion both possible on the same side of the same disc. As mentioned above, two audio tracks are available instantaneously for two different languages, two different versions of the content, or for instantaneous feedback. Any frame on the disc can be located and displayed for the student within three seconds. In addition, the laser-read disc is durable and the video and audio quality are excellent.
When mated to a microcomputer, a videodisc can provide ample opportunity for student learning, practice, or testing while at the same time managing and
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monitoring student activities and progress. The capabilities of interactive videodisc are limited primarily by our imagination…by our creativity. This is why Brigham Young University solicited and received a grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Post Secondary Education (FIPSE) and co-produced with them the videodisc program "Montevidisco," a simulated visit to a Mexican town.
Montevidisco
"Montevidisco" is a computer assisted instruction/interactive videodisc program that takes the student on a simulated visit to a northern Mexican town and in the process exposes students to real-life situation with natives speaking to them in Spanish at native speed. The program is also like an adventure game in that the student is never sure what will happen as a consequence of his remarks to the native speaker. In fact, the student may find himself in the local hospital or in jail, depending upon the decisions he makes at critical points in the program.
From the student's eyes, the program basically functions in the following way: (1) The student sits down in front of a computer terminal that has on top of it a quality, color television monitor and, after entering his name and being introduced to the system by the computer itself, he finds himself wandering onto the plaza in the center of town, (2) As he does so a native confronts him and speaking directly to him, says, in Spanish, "You're an American tourist, aren't you?", (3) At this point the video disc freeze frames, the native waiting for a response, and options appear on the computer screen which give the student an opportunity to respond n at least four different ways, including the option to have the person repeat what he just said, (4) Assuming that the student elects to hear the phrase repeated, he would press the appropriate number on the keyboard at which point the computer would expect him to record his choice in Spanish, speaking it into a microphone also provided at the computer terminal, (5) As the student speaks, only his production is recorded on a cassette tape for later review and evaluation by a proctor or the instructor. If the student does not take this critical step, the computer will keep prompting the student to create that production before it will permit him to continue, (6) Once the student has spoken the phrase into the computer, he then is given the option of hearing a surrogate produce or model that phrase for him by simply pressing "s" on the keyboard. If he elects to do so, the surrogate is immediately summoned from the disc and that phrase is stated and can be repeated as many times as the student chooses, (7) The student can then re-record his production, or continue. Remembering that he asked the native to repeat himself, continuing in this case means that the disc branches back to the beginning of that scene and repeats it. Had the student selected other options that native would have tried to promote himself as a tour guide, would have explained how to get to the beach, or in other ways would have provided different alternatives. At the end of each, brief scene the process is then again repeated where the student is expected to produce, in Spanish, his choice and then continue his adventure of exploring "Montevidisco."
Because of the gender intensive nature of Spanish, there are two versions of Montevidisco, one for male students and another for female students. The program functions very similarly for both version, but the options and scenes are different and, of course, the language changes to reflect the appropriate gender both in addressing the student and in the surrogate responses available. Montevidisco consists of 28 major sequences, each of which has several scenes and each scene has at least four options. The result is over 1,100 possible options or branches in the program, making it possible for a student to revisit "Montevidisco" several times and each time being able to visit new locations and interact with the natives in different ways.
Montevidisco consists of 28 major sequences, each of which has several scenes and each scene has at least four options. The result is over 1,100 possible options or branches in the program, making it possible for a student to revisit “Montevidisco” several

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times and each time being able to visit new locations and interact with the natives in different ways.
Problems Encountered and Solved
It is not easy to script interactive video. In a normal linear production the script is written much as the final product will appear, in linear fashion. Thereafter the production team breaks that script down into a scene breakdown for production purposes, and all scenes of the same location are shot at the same time, regardless of their chronology in the script. During editing, these segments are appropriately positioned in the final linear product. However, with interactive video, there is not a linear end product until the student actually, by his own choices in using the program, creates it. Therefore, the script starts out segmented, the production aids, (such as the scene breakdown) remain segmented, as does the final footage which is prepared for pressing onto the disc. This makes it very difficult to keep track of loose ends and to retain needed continuity between scenes and throughout the story.
Some who have produced interactive videodiscs have attempted to solve this problem by creating extensive flow charts, some of which have required literally yards of butcher paper. Our approach was to use a simple combination of a normal video script format, combined with a storyboard format which included in it the essential features of a flow chart so that branches were also represented on the script.
Another problem was assuring that all the branches made sense and that none of the options were left dangling. The problem is created by the fact that if you are to present four options in the first scene, the student being able to branch to any of the four, and each of those four have four options, and each of those sixteen have four options, you can see how the production can become impossibly large very quickly. In order to prevent this, Montevidisco was designed and scripted so that several options folded back in on themselves; that is, there are several ways to get to a sequence like the police station or the drug store. This kept the production and its possibilities manageable. However, during scripting, it's not easy to keep track of all of the options and where they go. For this reason we wrote a program that would map the entire production as well as branches from each of the scenes to each of the other scenes. This program identified those branches that were left hanging and made it easier for us to identify branches that didn't make sense.
Another series of problems was encountered as we began to produce this non-linear video program. As the producer began to plan for the production, he tried to force the branching program into more of a linear mold since that was his experience. He encountered great difficulty in organizing his production aids. We feel that this is due, in large measure, to the newness of the medium and the difficulty of the producer and director to conceptualize what was required.
One of the tools that we're presently developing to help overcome the production problems is a system that we refer to as computer-assisted production. Its main purpose is to overcome the difficulty in producing production aids while at the same time keeping track of continuity and expediting the entire production process. We believe that this is possible by: 1) entering the script into a microcomputer system as it's created, 2) using the computer to help create the production aids, 3) taking that computer on location to help keep track of the production's progress, and 4) by using that information in important ways during post production. We estimate that production costs may be reduced by as much as one-third through a computer assisted production system.
The Production of "Montevidisco"
Hermosillo, Mexico was scouted and accepted as the shooting location during a trip a few months before production began. Because of the scouting trip, modifications were made in the script to accommodate local color. Once the town was decided upon, permission to film in Mexico was solicited through the appropriate authorities, which took some time, and required that a Mexican government monitory be on location during the shooting. Shooting permission included transporting our electronic equipment across the border. As production began, the normal frustrations and pressures in video production were encountered and were compounded by the fact that much of the talent had to be local and was untrained. Since many of the lines in "Montevidisco" are comparatively short and there is very little interaction between people in a scene (the interaction being between the student and one other individual on the screen), it was not difficult to coach untrained actors in their lines and to get them to repeat those lines with basically the same voice inflection and movement. Some of the more critical scenes and longer lines were handled by local professional actors.
Computer Program Development
As the computer program was conceptualized and developed, an evolution occurred which resulted in a program that is basically modular and which can be adapted to other functions comparatively easily. The code was written in Pascal Z (a CPM version of Pascal) which handled some functions very well but which was very limiting. (We are now developing our programs in C because of its power, flexibility, and because of the condensed nature of the code.) The computer program was developed as a template rather than a program written for the specific scenes and circumstances of "Montevidisco." This makes it possible for us to produce other videodiscs requiring a simulation approach without having to rewrite the computer program. All that is necessary is that we enter new data files.
The computer program has the videodisc player play a segment and then freeze frame, it then waits for a keyed and spoken response from the student, provides the student with the opportunity to hear the surrogate and then advances to the next video segment based on what the student had selected. It also permits the use of still frames so that the student can explore the vegetables and fruits at the marketplace, for example, and ask about each.
The conceptualization and development of the computer program was, next to the production itself, the most expensive part of the entire program. Because those costs will not have to be repeated, we anticipate realizing substantial cost savings in our next production, "Flight 505," an EFL videodisc program that we are presently co-producing with the BBC.
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The Hardware Required
As "Montevidisco" was conceptualized there were no videodisc interfaces commercially available, much less interactive videodisc systems. This required that we design and develop two interfaces: one for interfacing two videodisc players to the computer and switching between them, and another for interfacing the audiocassette recorder with the computer. The research system developed for "Montevidisco" consisted of a computer and its terminal, a color TV monitor located directly above the computer terminal and a microphone also located near the student. It also included two videodisc players, one for the situations disc and another for the surrogate disc, a computer controllable audiocassette player, and the necessary interfaces mentioned above.
The costs for this system and its development were high and could only be justified for research. Fortunately, Sony announced an interactive videodisc system in November of 1982 which is capable of virtually all of the same functions as our research system and for a fraction of the cost. Other firms have produced interfaces which enable an Apple microcomputer to interface with industrial videodisc players. It is probable that "Montevidisco" will be re-edited to function on a single videodisc player so that it can be published for use on the Sony and Apple systems.
Preliminary Results
Two classes at BYU have used Montevidisco which makes it possible for us to suggest only very tenuous results. We had assumed that we were producing a program for more advanced students of Spanish and that they would spend considerable time interacting with the program. During this interaction we expected that they would notice, by listening to the surrogate, several of the errors that are frequently committed by such students such as the misuse of "ser" and "estar." Our experience has been, however, that the students have an inflated view of their ability to speak the language and that they seldom call upon the surrogate. This means that they simply repeat their errors. In our next research cycle we will not make the surrogate optional and hope to see the students beginning to notice their mistakes.
We also were surprised by the fact that lower level students are able to work with the system by the frequent use of the repeat option. In fact, we are beginning to suspect that this program will be of more benefit to the second year student in Spanish than we had earlier assumed.
At the present time, each student spends approximately two hours interacting with the program. We are hopeful that more students will use the system in repeated sessions when the use of "Montevidisco" is required by a professor for a grade.
Figure 2:
The Interest in and Future of "Montevidisco"
Our interactive videodisc work and especially "Montevidisco" has attracted international attention. Over 72 prominent visitors have been hosted at Brigham Young University, including ministers of education, members of parliament, military officers, presidents of universities and executives of corporations from the Philippines, New Zealand, France, Puerto Rico, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, Germany, the People's Republic of China, and the United States. In addition, in excess of 300 other visitors have reviewed our work here. Since January of 1983 we presented it at 15 conferences scattered throughout the United States.
Because of our videodisc work and earlier CAI work on TICCIT and PLATO, we have begun working with the BBC
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agencies in the Department of Defense, and have been solicited for involvement by major corporations, universities, and other organizations, such as museums, visitors' centers, and tourist attractions.
This Microcomputer Products Division of Sony has very graciously granted an interactive videodisc system to Brigham Young University which has made it possible for us to transfer much of our work to their system. We have been very pleased with its reliability an dare excited about it potential, especially for language learning. The nature of the Sony microcomputer makes it comparatively easy to generate different character fonts and to generate sophisticated graphics which can be displayed on the screen by themselves or superimposed on a video image. As other companies come on the market with similar systems, the competition can only benefit the field of interactive video in general.
BYU has received grants that will enable it to function as the headquarters for CALICO to publish a quarterly journal and to establish a database for related projects, personnel and literature.
Also, four major publishers have initiated contact with us, and we are hopeful that some of our work will be published and available for use in the near future.
Summary
The flexibility and powerful capabilities of interactive video hold out substantial promise for the teaching/learning process where the content is carefully designed and where the equipment systems and computer programs managing them are flexible and available at reasonable cost.
Our experience with Montevidisco, and other interactive videodisc programs, has taught us valuable lessons regarding the production, programming and delivery of interactive video instruction and, because of those lessons learned, interest in our work has been substantial.
REFERENCES
1. Arlin, P.K. "Cognitive Development in Adulthood: A Fifth Stage?" Developmental Psychology II (1975): 602-606.
­­­­­­­­­­­"Operational Levels in Comprehension and Production of Metaphors," Journal of Educational Psychology (1983): in press.
Billow, R. M. "A Cognitive Developmental Study of Metaphor comprehension," Developmental Psychology II (1975): 415-423.
Case, R. "Implications of Neo-Piagetian Theory for Improving the Design of Instruction," Chapter in Cognitive Development and Instruction, Eds. Biggs and Collis. New York: Academic Press, 1980.
Eisner, Elliott. "Mind as Cultural Achievement," Educational Leadership, p. 38 (March 1981): 466-477.
Epstein, H. T. "Correlated Brain and Intelligence Development in Humans," Chapter in Development and Evolution of Brain Size: Behavior Implications. Ed. M. Hahn. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
­­­­­­­­­­­­"Some Biological Bases of Cognitive Development," Bulletin of the Ortin Society (1980): 30.
Galin, David. "EEG Studies of Lateralization of Verbal Processes," The Neurological Basis of Language Disorders in Children: Methods and Directions for Research (NANCDS Monograph No. 22): U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1979.
Gazzaniga, Michael. "Brain-Corpus Collosum," Journal of Learning Disabilities 8 (November, 1975): 35-36.
Glassner, Benjamin. "Preliminary Report: Hemispheric Relationship in Composing," Journal of Education 162 (Spring 1980): 74-95/
Hunt, J. M. Intelligence and Experience. New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
Neimark, E. D. "Longitudinal Study of Formal Operations Thought," Genetic Psychology Monographs, 91 (1975): 171-225.
Piaget, J. Success and Understanding. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979.
Searleman, Ellen. "A Review of Right Hemisphere Linguistic Capabilities," Psychological Bulletin, 34 (1977): 503-528.
Shuy, Roger. "A Holistic View of Language," Research in the Teaching of English 15 (1981): 101-111.
Yakolev, P. A. Licours. "The Myelogenetic Cycles of Regional Development of the Brain." Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life. A. Minkowski, editor, Oxford, 1967.
2. Fleming, Malcom and W. Howard Levie. Instructional Message Design: Principles From the Behavioral Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1978.
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3. A CALI Glossary For Beginners
Randall L. Jones
Language teachers who make the effort to become familiar with the computer and its application to language teaching often encounter an irony that they perhaps do not expect: the necessity of learning a new language, or at least a substantial number of new specialized terms in their won language. Many of these terms are acronyms and have no meaning apart from the world of computers, e.g., ASCII and ROM. Others are English words which have taken on a new meaning, e.g., boot and menu.
The following list is intended to assist the language teaching specialist to become familiar with some of the more common terms used with the microcomputer and especially with computer-assisted language instruction. The list is admittedly not complete. Furthermore, readers may discover that terms used in some of the definitions are themselves in need of further clarification. We hope, however, that the glossary will at least help you become more familiar with the jargon that is used by your colleagues who are conversant with the computer and its function.
Algorithm — A detailed set of logical instructions for accomplishing a task. Computer programs are usually based on algorithms.
ApplesoftTM — A version of the BASIC programming language implemented on the Apple computer (See "BASIC," "Integer BASIC"). Most Apple computers purchased during the past three years come with Applesoft.
Array — A structured set of data items which are related to each other and which have a common name. The individual members in the array can be accessed using the array name and subscript numbers. For example, the array PREP may have as members the English prepositions, after, at, behind, by, for, from, in, etc. PREP(1) would refer to after, PREP(2) to at, etc.
ASCII (American Standard code for Information Interchange) — The most common method used for encoding characters (alphabetic characters, numbers, punctuation marks, etc.) in a way that can be understood by the computer. A Standard ASCII character set has 128 characters. The individual characters may, however, differ from one application to another, depending on the purpose for which the character set is being used.
BASIC (Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) — A programming language which is available on virtually every microcomputer. It uses standard English words in its instructions and is designed to be relatively easy to learn and use.
Bit (binary digit) — The memory of the computer can recognize only two numbers, viz. 0 and 1. This is simulated electronically by using a device such as a switch which is either off (0) or on (1). A single bit has only tow possible states. A series of two bits, however, can have up to sour state, i.e., 00, 01, 10, 11. A configuration of eight bits can have up to 256 states (2 to the power of 8), and thus is able to represent all upper and lower case letters of the English alphabet, single numbers from 0 to 9, all punctuation marks, as well as many other special characters. Microcomputers are often referred to as 8-bit or 16-bit machines, depending on whether the memory word is made up of eight of sixteen bits.
Boot — Early computers could be started up only by typing rather long list of special instructions. Later these instructions were programmed permanently within the computer, and it was only necessary to type in one or two instructions or merely to turn on a switch. The computer was thus said to be able to "lift itself up by its own bootstraps." From this came the expression "to boot" or "to boot up" the computer, i.e., to start it up and bring it to the point that it is useable. The word "boot" has nothing to do with kicking the computer, either figuratively or literally.
Branching — The process of interrupting the sequence of instructions in a program to go to a different point in the program. For example, in a language lesson the program might branch to point x if a student response is correct, but to point y if it is incorrect. Branching allows lessons to be more versatile and tailored to individual needs.
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Bug — A logical error in a program. (See "Debug".)
Byte — A configuration of bits sufficient to represent a functional piece of information, e.g., a letter of the alphabet or a number. The memory of a microcomputer as well as external storage devices such as disks are measured in terms of kilobytes (e.g., 64K = 64,000 bytes) or megabytes (e.g., 10meg = 10,000,000 bytes). These numbers are in reality not as exact as they may appear, but in fact have been slightly rounded off.
CAI — Computer-Assisted Instruction.
CALI — Computer-Assisted Language Instruction.
CALL — Computer-Assisted Language Learning.
Card — A special purpose circuit board which can be plugged into a microcomputer. For example, a 16K RAM card consists of a number of memory chips and is used to increase the internal memory of the computer. A disk controller card is an interface between the computer and the disk drive(s).
Chip — The invention of the microchip or semiconductor is the single even that made the microcomputer a reality. The staggering reduction in the size of the electronic circuitry also made possible a reduction in cost. Chips in a microcomputer are generally used either to store information temporarily (see "RAM") or to store pre-programmed information used by the computer (see "ROM").
Communicative — Those exercises which require the student to become involved in an interpersonal and meaningful exchange of "new" information (Widowson, 1978).
Course Authoring Language — A computer programming language which is specially designed for writing CAI lessons.
Course Authoring System — Special software designed for writing CAI lessons. Unlike a programming language or course authoring language, a course authoring system requires the lesson author simply to write in the essential text for each lesson. The formatting and packaging is then done automatically.
Courseware — A set of lessons designed to be used with a computer. The name was originally used to differentiate between the instructional material and the software that was used to write and run it.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) — A television-like screen, used to indicate the position of the next keyboard entry.
Cursor — A special mark which appears on the monitor screen, used to indicate the position of the next keyboard entry.
Debug — Locating and correcting a logical error in a computer program.
Dot-matrix printer — A computer-controlled printer which forms characters and graphic images by a pattern of points or dots. Each character is defined by a two-dimensional grid or matrix. For example, a grid of 7x9 has 63 dots. The principal advantages of a dot-matric printer are low cost, speed and flexibility, i.e., the fact that it can print a variety of characters and graphic patterns. The disadvantages is that the quality of the characters produced by most inexpensive dot-matrix printers is not as good as those produced by a conventional printer.
Drill and practice — A CAI lesson which is an adaptation of a workbook exercise, e.g., fill in the blank, select the correct answer, etc.
Feedback — An evaluation for a student's response to an item in a CAI lesson, to the work done on an entire lesson or to the student's progress over a period of time. It may consist of a simple positive or negative statement, e.g., "That's right!" or "Sorry, try again." to a more general analysis of the student's work, e.g., "You are doing very well on this lesson. I suggest that you go on to Lesson 7C now."
File — A collection of logically related records which are usually stored on a disk, e.g., a program, a data set, a lesson, etc. A file has a file name, which is used to access it, and in some cases a file type or extension to identify what kind of file it is.
Firmware — In certain cases it is convenient to record a program (software) on a ROM chip (hardware) and plug the chip into the circuitry of the computer. For example, the entire set of instructions which runs the ApplesoftTM language in and Apple II Plus microcomputer is on a ROM chip.
Floppy disk — A thin, round flexible mylar disk used for storage of microcomputer programs and data. Most commercially available software comes on floppy disks.
Graphics — The generation of shapes or pictures from a computer program which usually appear on the monitor screen, but which in some cases can be printed out. Some CAI lessons use computer-generated graphics to illustrate certain points.
Hard disk — An external storage medium which is similar to a floppy disk, but which has a much larger capacity (usually measured in "megabytes"), transfers data at a much faster rate, and which is considerably more expensive.
Hardware — Any part of the computer which is tangible.
Input — (noun) Information or data which is "put into" the computer; (verb) Putting information or data into the computer by means of a terminal keyboard, a magnetic tape, a magnetic disk, etc.
Integer BASIC — A version of the BASIC programming language which was implemented on the AppleTM computer when it first came on the market. It is rarely used for programming today, although many programs still exist that were originally written in Integer BASIC.
Interactive — The ability for a user to be able to "converse" with a computer. A CAI lesson, for example, is interactive. The computer asks a question, the student responds, the computer then provides feedback and asks another question, etc.
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Interface — An electronic device used to connect the computer to a piece of peripheral hardware such as disk drive, a printer, etc.
K — An abbreviation for kilobyte. (See "Byte.")
Load — Transferring a program from an external storage device to the memory of the computer.
Mainframe computer — A large stationary computer which has an extensive amount of memory (usually more than two megabytes) and disk space and is able to perform several different tasks simultaneously. A mainframe computer is usually shared by a number of users. The stereotype image of a machine with banks of blinking lights and rows of spinning tapes is usually associated with mainframe computers.
Meaningful Exercise — Those exercises which require the student to know the meaning of key words in the exercise item in order to respond correctly.
Mechanical Exercise — Those exercises which focus on one or more discrete elements of language (linguistic forms) without regard for the meaning inherent in these forms of elements.
Meg — An abbreviation for megabyte. (See "Byte.")
Memory — The part of the computer which can store directly accessible information. A standard memory size for most microcomputers today is 64K, although some have as little as 2K and others have as much as 512K (see "RAM").
Menu — A list of choices available to the user, which is usually displayed on the monitor screen. For example, a CAI course may have several lessons. The user can usually select the desired lesson by pressing a number or letter. Many programs are said to be "menu-driven," i.e., the user simply makes decisions as new menus are provided, until the desired point in the program is reached.
Microcomputer — A small portable computer which is relatively inexpensive and which is designed for a single user. Most microcomputers can perform only one task at a time.
Minicomputer — A medium size computer (roughly the size of a refrigerator) which falls between the microcomputer and the mainframe in terms of memory size and disk space. It is generally used for a specific purpose, e.g., research, accounting, multiple-user word processing, etc.
Modem (modulator/demodulator) — A device which converts computer data to a signal that can be transmitted over a telephone line. It can likewise reconvert a signal coming into a computer through a telephone line so that it can be understood by the computer.
Monitor — A television-like screen attached to the computer which is used to display information.
Pascal — A high-level structured computer language which is available for many microcomputers, minicomputers, and mainframe computers.
Peripheral — A device which can be attached electronically to a computer, usually for input and output.
PILOT (Programmed Instruction Learning or Teaching) — A programming language which is designed for writing CAI lessons. This type of computer language is often referred to as a course authoring language.
PLATOTM (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operation) — A CAI system developed at the University of Illinois and now owned by the Control Data Corporation. PLATO is available by remote access from virtually anywhere in the world.
Program — (noun) A series of computer instructions designed to accomplish a specific task or series of tasks; (verb) To write a computer program.
RAM (Random Access Memory) — Memory in the computer which can be accessed directly. Each byte in memory is addressable, i.e., the computer knows at all times what kind of information each of the bytes currently holds. The computer can read, erase or alter the data in each of the individual bytes directly. RAM in most microcomputers is "volatile" memory, i.e., it is lost when the power to the computer is shut off.
Record — One line or unit of data in a file.
ROM (Read Only Memory) — Preprogrammed memory in the computer which contains special instructions for the basic operation of the computer. The existence of ROM in a computer is transparent to the user, as it is not available for temporary storage. ROM is not volatile, i.e., it remains even after the power has been shut off.
Run — To begin, i.e., to put into motion, a program on the computer.
Software — The programs or sequence of instructions which tell the computer what to do.
TICCITTM (Time-Shared Interactive Computer-Controlled Information Television) — A CAI system developed at Brigham Young University by the MITRE Corporation, and now owned by the Hazeltine Corporation.
Transportability — The ability of software and courseware to be developed on one computer, then used on another one.
Tutorial — Courseware which provides language instruction to the student, rather than merely giving exercises.
User-friendly — The ease with which a computer program or lesson can be used by one who is not familiar with it. For example, if the user makes an error the program will provide information about how to correct the error.
Winchester-type hard disk — A fixed hard disk with a large memory capacity (usually from 5 to 40 megabytes) which transfers data at a rate much faster than floppy disks. The name Winchester is not a brand name, but has become a generic term for virtually all hard disk systems used with microcomputers. The legend is that IBM once developed a hard disk system that would store 30 megabytes of memory on 30 tracks. It was referred to as the 30-30, thus the name Winchester. 
4. Foreign Language Teaching and The New Technology
Congressman Dave McCurdy (D-Okla.)
In a classic lecture in 1922, Alfred North Whitehead noted that by age 15, children should have command of English, be able to read French fluently, and Latin should become to them easily so that they could start Greek…The more gifted children, he said , could of course go further.
Whitehead would have found it hard to imagine a college student who was not fully acquainted with these languages, as well as German and Italian.
Paradoxically, as the world has shrunk in the past 60 years to a global village, Americans seem more tongue-tied than ever—even in our own language.
The following facts from H.R. 1310 hearings emphasize the seriousness of the language problem in the U.S.:
• In 1980, the Presidential Commission on Foreign Languages was profoundly alarmed at he serious deterioration in U.S. language capacity.
• Only 15% of all high school students in the United States study foreign language, vs. 24% in 1965.
• Only 8% of the U.S. colleges require a foreign language for admission, vs. 35% in 1966.
• Fewer than 1% of college students are studying the languages used by three-fourths of the world's population, and only a small number will become fluent.
Why?
Why is there such a decline in language interest? One reason may be found in tradition or the mind set caused by tradition. Authors of a new book on artificial intelligence claim that traditionally Americans have always been suspicious of intellect. As Americans, we believe that intelligence is something you're born with and that anyone can see intelligence at work and admire it in action.
Intellect, on the other hand, has to be acquired with practice in those suspect places called classrooms, especially in colleges and universities. American see knowledge of foreign languages as intellectual, something not practical that people can do without.
FOREIGN LNAGUAGE AND TECHNOLOGY
There are two areas in which popular prejudices which hinder or negate personal and national growth are most apparent:
Learning foreign languages - Americans think everyone should earn English; in some countries, people find it hard to believe anyone could learn their language.
This attitude is implied in the story of an American born and raised in Japan who stopped in a remote rural area and asked directions from a farmer. The farmer answered, and then smiled at his questioner, saying, "I never knew English was so easy to understand!"
How often do we hear intelligent, skilled professionals say, "I just don't have an ear for languages."
It is even sadder to see language prejudices among people in areas where there are large immigrant populations - a problem by no means confined to the United States.
Coping with new technology - We can identify at least three fears that are common and widespread among those who come in contact or even hear about new technology:
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Fear of unknown
1. 1984 - the idea of loss of privacy through technology as supported by the fact that George Orwell's book is setting new sales records. Also the current Apple commercial for new Macintosh system uses ideas from 1984.
2. Frustrated expectations - a recent Carnegie Foundation report notes: Virtually every new piece of hardware introduced (in schools) in the past three decades has been oversold, misused and eventually discarded.
With the foregoing facts in mind it is obvious that any group that sets out to teach foreign languages to Americans, and do so by exploiting new technology, certainly has its work cut out for it.
EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY
I'm not an expert on foreign languages or on new technology, but I am in a unique position to see the importance of both. I am also in the position of having to act on these matters. From my perspective I see several areas which could and should be changed in order to combat the problems previously mentioned. Some of these areas for improvement lie within the lawmaker's jurisdiction but many lie in your jurisdiction.
Need to Redefine Education
For hundreds of years, education has been the same - someone standing up and lecturing. For the first time, we can now approach the ideal of teaching students at their own rates through applications of technology.
Furthermore, the traditional education system was too often passive. Computer technology is most often intrusive and constantly challenging.
Computers have fundamentally altered our ability to do things, but as they get smaller and faster, the problems of putting them to work, especially in an academic setting are more challenging than ever.
In the educational context, technology expands the user's reach to potentially unlimited dimensions. What, then, is a student? A teacher? A classroom? These are profound questions for society, and are among the greatest problems facing policymakers at all levels.
Human Dimension
To most people, technology means new developments in electronics, new materials, new manufacturing processes. But the other side is human ingenuity — ideas, often simple ones, which allow us to get the most out of what is available.
The ultimate decision-maker is still the human being. We must put out ingenuity to work. We must rethink what is worth teaching, and how we can improve this process with computers. Electronic page-turning is not an acceptable application either of the new technology or our human ingenuity.
Consortia
Legislation, like the new National Science Board report, recognizes the importance of consortia in guiding the development of educational technology. Groups like CALICO and others will assume a greater importance in this area. Such groups open lines of communication, offer chances of coordination of effort, aid in the collection of vast amounts of experiential and experimental data, and help provide a means of dissemination of the information contributed to the consortium. It is obvious that the efforts of consortia can and will be invaluable in the task of breaking down the barriers of prejudice and fear surrounding both language learning and new technology.
The Federal Role and Legislation
During the 1950s and 1960s, the federal government encouraged the growth of computing, and research methods were transformed in discipline after discipline.
In the 70s - as minicomputers, microcomputers, and many computer-dependent tools became available - government support fell off, and academic facilities no longer kept pace with other sectors.
The Vice-provost for computing at Carnegie-Mellon has said: 'unless something changes drastically, the nation's best universities won't take part in this revolution."
Today we would be hard pressed to find a school keeping up with the student demand for computers. Extraordinary sums are being spent on university computers - $1.3 billion a year. But more than half is for administration, no instruction or research.
The amount spent on academic work is only about $20 per student per year.
Furthermore, as applications increase, many schools blanch at the thought of having to provide computer access not just for science and engineering, but for literature, history, sociology and foreign languages.
Nevertheless, all studies have concluded that the biggest barrier to adequate education is not the shortage of hardware, or inadequate software, but the lack of qualified teachers.
House Bill H.R. 1310, which has now passed the House, covers several areas concerning the future of education (including foreign languages) in this country and provides for the following:
• national teaching scholarships
• competitive grants for undergraduate curriculum development
• summer institutes
• studies of effective educational methods and programs, including instructional uses of information technologies for teaching and learning foreign languages.
 The Challenge
From the lawmaker's perspective many things are being done to overcome these barriers which are perceived as barriers to personal and national growth. Many more things of course need to be done. But other remaining barriers are more personal and political than technological or legislative.
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Too many schools are reluctant to insist on a significant level of literacy in foreign languages — as with science — because they are thought to require special effort.
Too often children are not encouraged to tackle a subject because it is assumed that many or most are incapable of making the effort.
The real crisis in our schools is not that the educational effort has been made and failed - that our students have proved incompetent - but that it has rarely been tried.
Technology provides us with an alternative - it will never do more.
The rest is up to us.
Editor's Note: Congressman McCurdy has requested that members of CALICO and other interested individuals write their congressmen and senators regarding the importance of HR 1310 and subsequent legislation in support of applying high technology to the teaching and learning of languages.